Remove old unused code, and measure parsing speed

Makefile

@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ OFLAGS += $(GFLAGS) -O3 -DNDEBUG -DTYPECODES=1 -DDELOPT=1
 PFLAGS += $(OFLAGS) -pg
 CFLAGS += -D_GNU_SOURCE -I/opt/local/include
 LDLIBS += -L/opt/local/lib
-LDLIBS += -lgc -lm
+LDLIBS += -lgc -lm -lffi
 
 MAIN = minproto
 

rawMetaGrammar.leg

@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+statement  = b:block                                         { b; }
+           | e:expression SEMI                               { e; }
+
+expression = p:primary
+           ( DOT   i:id               ASSIGN e:expression  # { $$ = newSetProp(p, i, e) }
+           | LBRAK i:expression RBRAK ASSIGN e:expression    { SetArray.new(object: p, index: i, value: e); }
+           )
+           | i:id                     ASSIGN e:expression    { SetVar.new(name: i, value: e); }
+           | pf:postfix                                      { pf; }
+
+postfix    = p:primary
+           ( DOT   i:id a:args  !ASSIGN !LBRACE              { p = Invoke.new(self: p, method: i, arguments: a); }
+           | DOT   i:id         !ASSIGN                      { p = GetProp.new(object: p, key: i); }
+           | a:args !ASSIGN !LBRACE                          { p = Call.new(function: p, arguments: a); }
+           ) *                                               { p; }
+
+args       = LPAREN a:mklist
+           (
+           ( k:id COLON e:expression                         { a[k] = e; }
+           | e:expression                                    { a.push(e); }
+           )
+           ( COMMA
+           ( k:id COLON e:expression                         { a[k] = e; }
+           | e:expression                                    { a.push(e); }
+           )
+           ) *
+           ) ? RPAREN                                        { a; }
+
+mklist     =                                                 { Object.new(); }
+
+primary    = nil | number | var | subExpr
+
+subExpr    = LPAREN e:expression RPAREN                      { e; }
+
+block      = LBRACE b:mklist
+           ( e:statement                                     { b.push(e); }
+           ) * RBRACE                                        { Block.new(body: b); }
+
+nil        = NIL                                             { nil; }
+
+number  = "-" n:unsign                                       { Unyop.new(operation: __opNeg).push(n) }
+        | "+" n:number                                       { n }
+        |     n:unsign                                       { n }
+
+unsign  = < DIGIT+ > -                                       { yytext.asInteger(10); }
+
+var        = i:id                                            { GetVar.new(name: i); }
+
+id         = < LETTER ALNUM* > -                             { intern(yytext); }
+
+DIGIT          = [0-9]
+LETTER         = [A-Za-z_]
+ALNUM          = LETTER | DIGIT
+
+NIL            = "nil" !ALNUM -
+
+SEMI           = ";"          -
+COMMA          = ","          -
+LPAREN         = "("          -
+RPAREN         = ")"          -
+LBRAK          = "["          -
+RBRAK          = "]"          -
+LBRACE         = "{"          -
+RBRACE         = "}"          -
+COLON          = ":" ![:]     -
+ASSIGN         = "=" ![=]     -
+DOT            = "." ![.]     -
+
+-              = ( space | comment )*
+space          = ' ' | '\t' | end-of-line
+comment        = '//' ( !end-of-line . )* end-of-line
+end-of-line    = '\r\n' | '\n' | '\r'
+end-of-file    = !.

rawgrammar.leg

@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+grammar        = -
+               ( d:definition                            { setInTopNamespace(d.name, d.expression); }
+               ) + end-of-file
+
+definition     = i:identifier ASSIGN e:expression SEMI?  { Definition.new(name: i, expression: e); }
+
+expression     = s:sequence !BAR                         { s; }
+               | s1:sequence                             { s1 = Alternation.new().push(s1); }
+                 ( BAR s2:sequence                       { s1.push(s2); }
+                 ) *                                     { s1; }
+
+sequence       = p:prefix                                { p = Sequence.new().push(p); }
+               ( q:prefix                                { p.push(q); }
+               ) *                                       { p; }
+
+prefix         = AND a:action                            { ParseTimeAction.new(action: a); }
+               |
+                 ( AND s:suffix                          { And.new(expression: s); }
+                 | NOT s:suffix                          { Not.new(expression: s); }
+                 | s:suffix                              { s; }
+                 )
+
+suffix         = p:primary
+               ( QUERY                                   { p = Optional.new(expression: p); }
+               | STAR                                    { p = Star.new(expression: p); }
+               | PLUS                                    { p = Plus.new(expression: p); }
+               ) ?                                       { p; }
+
+primary        = i1:identifier COLON i2:ruleCall !ASSIGN { Assignment.new(name: i1, rule: i2); }
+               | i:ruleCall !ASSIGN                      { i; }
+               | LPAREN e:expression RPAREN              { e; }
+               | l:literal                               { l; }
+               | c:class                                 { c; }
+               | DOT                                     { Dot.new(); }
+               | a:action                                { a; }
+               | BEGIN                                   { Begin.new(); }
+               | END                                     { End.new(); }
+
+identifier     = < [-a-zA-Z_][-a-zA-Z_0-9]* > -          { intern(yytext); }
+
+ruleCall       = n:identifier CCOLON r:identifier        { NamespacedRuleCall.new(namespace: n, name: r); }
+               | i:identifier                            { RuleCall.new(name: i); }
+
+literal        = ['] < ( !['] char )* > ['] -            { StringLiteral.new(string: yytext); }
+               | ["] < ( !["] char )* > ["] -            { StringLiteral.new(string: yytext); }
+
+class          = '[' < ( !']' range )* > ']' -           { CharacterClass.new(value: yytext); }
+
+range          = char '-' char | char
+
+char           = '\\' [abefnrtv'"\[\]\\]
+               | '\\' [0-3][0-7][0-7]
+               | '\\' [0-7][0-7]?
+               | !'\\' .
+
+action         = m:metaLanguage::block -                 { Action.new(parseTree: m); }
+
+-              = ( space | comment )*
+space          = ' ' | '\t' | end-of-line
+comment        = '#' ( !end-of-line . )* end-of-line
+end-of-line    = '\r\n' | '\n' | '\r'
+end-of-file    = !.
+
+BAR            = '|'          -
+NOT            = '!'          -
+QUERY          = '?'          -
+BEGIN          = '<'          -
+END            = '>'          -
+SEMI           = ";"          -
+CCOLON         = "::"         -
+LPAREN         = "("          -
+RPAREN         = ")"          -
+ASSIGN         = "=" ![=]     -
+AND            = "&" ![&=]    -
+PLUS           = "+" ![+=]    -
+STAR           = "*" ![=]     -
+DOT            = "." ![.]     -
+COLON          = ":" ![:]     -

rawminproto.leg

@@ -0,0 +1,267 @@
+start   = - ( s:stmt                            { s; }
+            | !.                                # { yysval = 0 }
+            | < (!EOL .)* >                     # { fatal("syntax error near: %s", yytext) }
+            )
+
+stmt    = WHILE LPAREN c:expr RPAREN s:stmt     { While.new(condition: c, body: s) }
+        | IF LPAREN c:expr RPAREN s:stmt
+          ( ELSE t:stmt                         { If.new(condition: c, consequent: s, alternate: t  ) }
+          |                                     { If.new(condition: c, consequent: s, alternate: nil) }
+          )
+        | CONT EOS                              { Continue.new() }
+        | BREAK e:expr EOS                      { Break.new(value: e) }
+        | BREAK EOS                             { Break.new(value: nil) }
+        | RETURN e:expr EOS                     { Return.new(value: e) }
+        | RETURN EOS                            { Return.new(value: nil) }
+        | FOR LPAREN i:id IN e:expr RPAREN
+              s:stmt                            { ForIn.new(identifier: i, expression: e, body: s) }
+        | FOR LPAREN i:id FROM a:expr
+                 TO  b:expr RPAREN s:stmt       { ForFromTo.new(identifier: i, first: a, last: b, body: s) }
+        | FOR LPAREN i:expr SEMI c:expr SEMI
+                     u:expr RPAREN s:stmt       { For.new(initialise: i, condition: c, update: u, body: s) }
+        | TRY t:stmt
+          ( CATCH LPAREN i:id RPAREN c:stmt     { TryCatch.new(statement: t, identifier: i, handler: c) }
+          | ENSURE e:stmt                       { TryEnsure.new(statement: t, handler: e) }
+          )
+        | RAISE e:expr EOS                      { Raise.new(value: e) }
+        | LOCAL       i:id p:params b:block     { SetLocal.new(name: i, value: Lambda.new(parameters: p, body: b)) }
+        | GLOBAL      i:id p:params b:block     { SetGlobal.new(name: i, value: Lambda.new(parameters: p, body: b)) }
+        |             i:id p:params b:block     { SetVar.new(name: i, value: Lambda.new(parameters: p, body: b)) }
+        | v:proto DOT i:id p:params b:block     { SetProp.new(object: v, key: i, value: Lambda.new(parameters: p, body: b)) }
+        | b:block                               { Block.new(body: b) }
+        | e:expr EOS                            { e }
+
+proto   = v:var ( DOT j:id !LPAREN              { v = GetProp.new(object: v, key: j) }
+                )*                              { v }
+
+EOS     = SEMI+ | &RBRACE | &ELSE | &CATCH
+
+expr    = LOCAL  i:id ASSIGN e:expr             { SetLocal.new(name: i, value: e) }
+        | GLOBAL i:id ASSIGN e:expr             { SetGlobal.new(name: i, value: e) }
+        |        i:id ASSIGN e:expr             { SetVar.new(name: i, value: e) }
+        | l:logor ( ASSIGN   r:expr             { l  = assign(l, r) }
+                  | PLUSEQ   r:expr             { l  = newBinop(__opPreAdd, lvalue(l), r) }
+                  | MINUSEQ  r:expr             { l  = newBinop(__opPreSub, lvalue(l), r) }
+                  | STAREQ   r:expr             { l  = newBinop(__opPreMul, lvalue(l), r) }
+                  | SLASHEQ  r:expr             { l  = newBinop(__opPreDiv, lvalue(l), r) }
+                  | PCENTEQ  r:expr             { l  = newBinop(__opPreMod, lvalue(l), r) }
+                  | SHLEQ    r:expr             { l  = newBinop(__opPreShl, lvalue(l), r) }
+                  | SHREQ    r:expr             { l  = newBinop(__opPreShr, lvalue(l), r) }
+                  | ANDEQ    r:expr             { l  = newBinop(__opPreAnd, lvalue(l), r) }
+                  | XOREQ    r:expr             { l  = newBinop(__opPreXor, lvalue(l), r) }
+                  | OREQ     r:expr             { l  = newBinop(__opPreOr,  lvalue(l), r) }
+                  )?                            { l }
+
+logor   = l:logand ( BARBAR r:logand            { l = newBinop(__opLogOr,  l, r) }
+                   )*                           { l }
+
+logand  = l:bitor ( ANDAND r:bitor              { l = newBinop(__opLogAnd, l, r) }
+                  )*                            { l }
+
+bitor   = l:bitxor ( OR r:bitxor                { l = newBinop(__opBitOr,  l, r) }
+                   )*                           { l }
+
+bitxor  = l:bitand ( XOR r:bitand               { l = newBinop(__opBitXor, l, r) }
+                   )*                           { l }
+
+bitand  = l:eq ( AND r:eq                       { l = newBinop(__opBitAnd, l, r) }
+               )*                               { l }
+
+eq      = l:ineq ( EQ    r:ineq                 { l = newBinop(__opEq,    l, r) }
+                 | NOTEQ r:ineq                 { l = newBinop(__opNotEq, l, r) }
+                 )*                             { l }
+
+ineq    = l:shift ( LESS   r:shift              { l = newBinop(__opLess,   l, r) }
+                  | LESSEQ r:shift              { l = newBinop(__opLessEq, l, r) }
+                  | GRTREQ r:shift              { l = newBinop(__opGrtrEq, l, r) }
+                  | GRTR   r:shift              { l = newBinop(__opGrtr,   l, r) }
+                  )*                            { l }
+
+shift   = l:sum ( SHL r:sum                     { l = newBinop(__opShl, l, r) }
+                | SHR r:sum                     { l = newBinop(__opShr, l, r) }
+                )*                              { l }
+
+sum     = l:prod ( PLUS  r:prod                 { l = newBinop(__opAdd, l, r) }
+                 | MINUS r:prod                 { l = newBinop(__opSub, l, r) }
+                 )*                             { l }
+
+prod    = l:range ( STAR  r:range               { l = newBinop(__opMul, l, r) }
+                  | SLASH r:range               { l = newBinop(__opDiv, l, r) }
+                  | PCENT r:range               { l = newBinop(__opMod, l, r) }
+                  ) *                           { l }
+
+range   = i1:prefix ( DOTDOT i2:prefix          { i1 = Range.new(start: i1, end: i2) }
+        ) ?                                     { i1 }
+
+prefix  = PPLUS  p:prefix                       { newBinop(__opPreAdd, lvalue(p), 1) }
+        | MMINUS p:prefix                       { newBinop(__opPreSub, lvalue(p), 1) }
+        | PLING  p:prefix                       { Unyop.new(operation: __opNot).push(p) }
+        | MINUS  p:prefix                       { Unyop.new(operation: __opNeg).push(p) }
+        | TILDE  p:prefix                       { Unyop.new(operation: __opCom).push(p) }
+        | BQUOTE s:stmt                         { Unyop.new(operation: __opQuasiquote).push(s) }
+        | COMMAT e:expr                         { Unyop.new(operation: __opUnquote).push(e) }
+        | postfix
+
+postfix = SUPER DOT i:id a:args                 { Super.new(method: i, arguments: a) }
+        | p:primary
+          ( LBRAK e:expr RBRAK                  { p = GetArray.new(object: p, index: e) }
+          | DOT   i:id ( a:args !LBRACE         { p = Invoke.new(self: p, method: i, arguments: a) }
+                       |                        { p = GetProp.new(object: p, key: i) }
+                       )
+          |              a:args !LBRACE         { p = newApply(p, a) }
+          )*
+          ( PPLUS                               { p  = newBinop(__opPostAdd, lvalue(p),  1) }
+          | MMINUS                              { p  = newBinop(__opPostAdd, lvalue(p), -1) }
+          )?                                    { p }
+
+args    = LPAREN a:mkobj
+          ( RPAREN
+          | ( k:id COLON e:expr                 { a[k] = e }
+            | e:expr                            { a.push(e) }
+            )
+            ( COMMA ( k:id COLON e:expr         { a[k] = e }
+                    | e:expr                    { a.push(e) }
+                    ) )* RPAREN )               { a }
+
+params  = LPAREN p:mkobj
+          ( RPAREN
+          | i:id ( COLON e:expr                 { p[i] = e }
+                 |                              { p.push(i) }
+                 )
+            ( COMMA i:id ( COLON e:expr         { p[i] = e }
+                         |                      { p.push(i) }
+                         )
+            )* RPAREN )                         { p }
+
+mkobj   =                                       { Object.new() }
+
+primary = nil | number | string | symbol | var | lambda | subexpr | literal
+
+lambda  = p:params b:block                      { Lambda.new(parameters: p, body: b) }
+
+subexpr = LPAREN e:expr  RPAREN                 { e }
+        |        b:block                        { Block.new(body: b) }
+
+literal = LBRAK o:mkobj
+          ( RBRAK
+          | ( ( i:id COLON e:expr               { o[i] = e }
+              | e:expr                          { o.push(e) }
+              ) ( COMMA ( i:id COLON e:expr     { o[i] = e }
+                        | e:expr                { o.push(e) }
+                        ) )* )? RBRAK )         { Literal.new(object: o) }
+
+block   = LBRACE b:mkobj
+            (  e:stmt                           { b.push(e) }
+            )* RBRACE                           { Block.new(body: b) }
+
+nil     = NIL                                   { nil }
+
+number  = "-" n:unsign                          { Unyop.new(operation: __opNeg).push(n) }
+        | "+" n:number                          { n }
+        |     n:unsign                          { n }
+
+unsign  = < DIGIT* '.' DIGIT+ EXP? > -          { yytext.asFloat() }
+        | "0" [bB] < BIGIT+ > -                 { yytext.asInteger(2) }
+        | "0" [xX] < HIGIT+ > -                 { yytext.asInteger(16) }
+        | "0" < OIGIT* > -                      { yytext.asInteger(8) }
+        | < DIGIT+ > -                          { yytext.asInteger() }
+        | "'" < char > "'" -                    { ord(yytext.unescaped()) }
+
+string  = '"' < ( !'"' char )* > '"' -          { yytext.unescaped() }
+
+char    = "\\" ( ["'\\abfnrtv]
+               | [xX] HIGIT*
+               | [0-7][0-7]?[0-7]?
+               )
+        | .
+
+symbol  = HASH i:id                             { i }
+
+var     = LOCAL  i:id                           { GetLocal.new(name: i) }
+        | GLOBAL i:id                           { GetGlobal.new(name: i) }
+        |        i:id                           { GetVar.new(name: i) }
+
+id      = < LETTER ALNUM* > -                   { intern(yytext) }
+
+BIGIT   = [0-1]
+OIGIT   = [0-7]
+DIGIT   = [0-9]
+HIGIT   = [0-9A-Fa-f]
+LETTER  = [A-Za-z_]
+ALNUM   = LETTER | DIGIT
+SIGN    = [-+]
+EXP     = [eE] SIGN DIGIT+
+
+-       = SPACE*
+
+SPACE   = [ \t] | EOL | SLC | MLC
+EOL     = [\n\r]                                # { ++lineno }
+SLC     = "//" (!EOL .)*
+MLC     = "/*" ( MLC | !"*/" (EOL | .))* "*/" -
+
+NIL     = "nil"      !ALNUM  -
+WHILE   = "while"    !ALNUM  -
+IF      = "if"       !ALNUM  -
+ELSE    = "else"     !ALNUM  -
+FOR     = "for"      !ALNUM  -
+IN      = "in"       !ALNUM  -
+FROM    = "from"     !ALNUM  -
+TO      = "to"       !ALNUM  -
+CONT    = "continue" !ALNUM  -
+BREAK   = "break"    !ALNUM  -
+RETURN  = "return"   !ALNUM  -
+TRY     = "try"      !ALNUM  -
+CATCH   = "catch"    !ALNUM  -
+ENSURE  = "ensure"   !ALNUM  -
+RAISE   = "raise"    !ALNUM  -
+GLOBAL  = "global"   !ALNUM  -
+LOCAL   = "local"    !ALNUM  -
+SUPER   = "super"    !ALNUM  -
+
+BQUOTE  = "`"           -
+COMMAT  = "@"           -
+HASH    = "#"           -
+SEMI    = ";"           -
+ASSIGN  = "="  ![=]     -
+COMMA   = ","           -
+COLON   = ":"  ![:]     -
+LPAREN  = "("           -
+RPAREN  = ")"           -
+LBRAK   = "["           -
+RBRAK   = "]"           -
+LBRACE  = "{"           -
+RBRACE  = "}"           -
+BARBAR  = "||" ![=]     -
+ANDAND  = "&&" ![=]     -
+OR      = "|"  ![|=]    -
+OREQ    = "|="          -
+XOR     = "^"  ![=]     -
+XOREQ   = "^="          -
+AND     = "&"  ![&=]    -
+ANDEQ   = "&="          -
+EQ      = "=="          -
+NOTEQ   = "!="          -
+LESS    = "<"  ![<=]    -
+LESSEQ  = "<="          -
+GRTREQ  = ">="          -
+GRTR    = ">"  ![=]     -
+SHL     = "<<" ![=]     -
+SHLEQ   = "<<="         -
+SHR     = ">>" ![=]     -
+SHREQ   = ">>="         -
+PLUS    = "+"  ![+=]    -
+PLUSEQ  = "+="          -
+PPLUS   = "++"          -
+MINUS   = "-"  ![-=]    -
+MINUSEQ = "-="          -
+MMINUS  = "--"          -
+STAR    = "*"  ![=]     -
+STAREQ  = "*="          -
+SLASH   = "/"  ![/=]    -
+SLASHEQ = "/="          -
+PCENT   = "%"  ![=]     -
+PCENTEQ = "%="          -
+DOT     = "."  ![.]     -
+DOTDOT  = ".."          -
+PLING   = "!"  ![=]     -
+TILDE   = "~"           -

test.ref

@@ -147,13 +147,10 @@ f();
 f 102 ( 40 ) 41   32 { 123   32 p 112 r 114 i 105 n 110 t 116 ( 40 _ 95 _ 95 e 101 n 110 v 118 _ 95 _ 95 ( 40 ) 41 ) 41   32 } 125 
  10 f 102 ( 40 ) 41 ; 59 
  10 
-<<Binop>>
-  |   operation: 15
-  |   0: 6
-  |   1: 7
 42
 42
-6 * 7
+42
+42
 MACRO table <<Object>>
   |   assert: <<Closure>>
   |   |   environment: nil
@@ -261,4 +258,4 @@ AST eval => 42
   3: if (n < 2) nil else n * factorial(n - 1)
   2: factorial(5)
   1: { factorial(5) }
-  0: try { factorial(5) } catch (e) { { if (!eval(e.__function__ == "*")) { print("\nassertion failed: ", "e.__function__ == \"*\"", "\n"); exit(1) } }; { if (!eval(e.__kind__ == "type error")) { print("\nassertion failed: ", "e.__kind__ == \"type error\"", "\n"); exit(1) } }; { if (!eval(e.__message__ == "illegal operand types")) { print("\nassertion failed: ", "e.__message__ == \"illegal operand types\"", "\n"); exit(1) } }; { if (!eval(e.operand1 == 2)) { print("\nassertion failed: ", "e.operand1 == 2", "\n"); exit(1) } }; { if (!eval(e.operand2 == nil)) { print("\nassertion failed: ", "e.operand2 == nil", "\n"); exit(1) } }; print(e.__function__, ": ", e.__kind__, ": ", e.__message__, ": ", typeName(e.operand1), " and ", typeName(e.operand2), "\n"); let w = 2; let j = i; while (j /= 10 >= 0) { w += 1 }; for (i from len(e) - 1 to 0) print(pad(w, codeString(i)), ": ", codeString(e[i]), "\n") }
+  0: try { factorial(5) } catch (e) { { if (!eval(e.__function__ == "*")) { print("\nassertion failed: ", "e.__function__ == \"*\"", "\n"); exit(1) } }; { if (!eval(e.__kind__ == "type error")) { print("\nassertion failed: ", "e.__kind__ == \"type error\"", "\n"); exit(1) } }; { if (!eval(e.__message__ == "illegal operand types")) { print("\nassertion failed: ", "e.__message__ == \"illegal operand types\"", "\n"); exit(1) } }; { if (!eval(e.operand1 == 2)) { print("\nassertion failed: ", "e.operand1 == 2", "\n"); exit(1) } }; { if (!eval(e.operand2 == nil)) { print("\nassertion failed: ", "e.operand2 == nil", "\n"); exit(1) } }; print(e.__function__, ": ", e.__kind__, ": ", e.__message__, ": ", typeName(e.operand1), " and ", typeName(e.operand2), "\n"); backtrace(e) }

test.txt

@@ -152,8 +152,8 @@ assert((0b1110 & 0b0111) == 0b0110);
 nt = 0;
 nf = 0;
 
-t() { nt = nt + 1;  #t }
-f() { nf = nf + 1;  nil }
+t() { global nt += 1;  #t }
+f() { global nf += 1;  nil }
 
 refute(f() || f());  assert(nt == 0);  assert(nf == 2);
 assert(f() || t());  assert(nt == 1);  assert(nf == 3);
@@ -378,6 +378,12 @@ ast = (`6 * @myNode;); // user-defined node in AST
 
 print("AST eval => ", eval(ast), "\n");
 
+print("String to int conversion\n");
+print("11111111".asInteger(2), "\n");
+print("377".asInteger(8), "\n");
+print("255".asInteger(), "\n");
+print("FF".asInteger(16), "\n");
+
 for (i from 0 to 10) 		     print(i, " ");  print("\n");
 for (i from 10 to 0) 		     print(i, " ");  print("\n");
 for (i in 10)        		     print(i, " ");  print("\n");
@@ -388,16 +394,23 @@ factorial(n) { if (n < 2) nil else n * factorial(n-1) }
 
 typeName(x) {
     if (!x) return "<Undefined>";
-    let name = "?";
-    let level = 1;
+    name = "?";
+    level = 1;
     while (x && !x.allKeys().includes(#__name__)) x = x.__delegate__;
     if (x.allKeys().includes(#__name__)) name = x.__name__.asString();
     "<" * level + name + ">" * level;
 }
 
-pad(w, i) {
-    while (len(i) < w) i = " " + i;
-    i;
+backtrace(e) {
+    pad(w, i) {
+        while (len(i) < w) i = " " + i;
+        i;
+    }
+    w = 2;
+    j = len(e);
+    while ((j /= 10) > 0) { ++w; } // w = 1+log10(j)
+    for (i from len(e) - 1 to 0)
+        print(pad(w, codeString(i)), ": ", codeString(e[i]), "\n");
 }
 
 try {
@@ -410,9 +423,5 @@ catch (e) {
     assert(e.operand1     == 2);
     assert(e.operand2     == nil);
     print(e.__function__, ": ", e.__kind__, ": ", e.__message__, ": ", typeName(e.operand1), " and ", typeName(e.operand2), "\n");
-    let w = 2;
-    let j = i;
-    while ( (j /= 10) > 0) { ++w; }
-    for (i from len(e) - 1 to 0)
-        print(pad(w, codeString(i)), ": ", codeString(e[i]), "\n");
+    backtrace(e);
 }